Elevated BACE at the mRNA, protein, and/or activity levels have been found in the Alzheimer's disease (AD) and aging brain. Clarifying the mechanism of BACE alterations in AD will contribute to identifying therapeutic targets. This rigorous study further elucidates the complex cell biology of BACE, and demonstrates that BACE is susceptible to regulation at the translational level. The authors show that BACE translation is cap-dependent; translation can be inhibited by nucleotides 61-74 and 180-190 in the leader sequence and by the second of four AUG sequences in the 5' UTR, depending on the cell line.

Other factors can affect BACE levels, as well. Promoter sequences in the BACE gene include Sp1-responsive elements that regulate transcription. BACE undergoes alternative splicing, as well as multiple co- and post-translational modifications including N-glycosylation, sulfation, phosphorylation, and furin-mediated cleavage of the prodomain. Alternative BACE substrates, distribution of BACE between secretory and endosomal compartments, and cellular cholesterol metabolism may...  Read more

Elevated BACE at the mRNA, protein, and/or activity levels have been found in the Alzheimer's disease (AD) and aging brain. Clarifying the mechanism of BACE alterations in AD will contribute to identifying therapeutic targets. This rigorous study further elucidates the complex cell biology of BACE, and demonstrates that BACE is susceptible to regulation at the translational level. The authors show that BACE translation is cap-dependent; translation can be inhibited by nucleotides 61-74 and 180-190 in the leader sequence and by the second of four AUG sequences in the 5' UTR, depending on the cell line.

Other factors can affect BACE levels, as well. Promoter sequences in the BACE gene include Sp1-responsive elements that regulate transcription. BACE undergoes alternative splicing, as well as multiple co- and post-translational modifications including N-glycosylation, sulfation, phosphorylation, and furin-mediated cleavage of the prodomain. Alternative BACE substrates, distribution of BACE between secretory and endosomal compartments, and cellular cholesterol metabolism may also modulate BACE activity. BACE cell biology is liable to be affected at multiple levels in AD, contributing to the accumulation of amyloid-β protein.

View all comments by Michael Irizarry

Transcriptional regulation is probably the major mode of regulating eukaryotic gene expression; however, post-transcriptional mechanisms also contribute, in many instances, to determine the final amount of a gene product that is present in the cell at a given moment. In particular, the efficiency of translation of certain transcripts can be modulated, and in most cases the signals responsible for this modulation are located in the 5'-untranslated regions of the mRNAs (5'-UTRs or leader sequences, the region of the mRNA that is upstream of the translation initiation codon). The mRNA for BACE1, the enzyme involved in Alzheimer’s disease, seems to belong to this category, according to a paper published in last week’s PNAS, by first author George Rogers and colleagues at The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla.

In 1989, Marilyn Kozak proposed a mechanism for translation initiation known as scanning model. According to this model, the small ribosomal subunit and some translation initiation factors bind at the cap structure present at the 5'-end of all cellular transcripts, and...  Read more

Transcriptional regulation is probably the major mode of regulating eukaryotic gene expression; however, post-transcriptional mechanisms also contribute, in many instances, to determine the final amount of a gene product that is present in the cell at a given moment. In particular, the efficiency of translation of certain transcripts can be modulated, and in most cases the signals responsible for this modulation are located in the 5'-untranslated regions of the mRNAs (5'-UTRs or leader sequences, the region of the mRNA that is upstream of the translation initiation codon). The mRNA for BACE1, the enzyme involved in Alzheimer’s disease, seems to belong to this category, according to a paper published in last week’s PNAS, by first author George Rogers and colleagues at The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla.

In 1989, Marilyn Kozak proposed a mechanism for translation initiation known as scanning model. According to this model, the small ribosomal subunit and some translation initiation factors bind at the cap structure present at the 5'-end of all cellular transcripts, and scan linearly until they encounter the first AUG codon where translation initiates. This model fits most cellular mRNAs, since they contain unstructured leaders that are easily melted by the scanning ribosomes, and since translation initiates in these mRNAs at their first AUG codon. BACE1 mRNA, on the contrary, contains a 5'-UTR that is rich in GCs and has, therefore, the potential to fold into stable structures.

Moreover, four AUG codons precede the BACE1 start codon, and thus, protein synthesis does not initiate at the most 5' AUG of the transcript. Like BACE1, other cellular and viral mRNAs contain weird leader sequences that violate Kozak’s rules. They are translated by mechanisms that are exceptions to the scanning model, including internal initiation, leaky scanning, reinitiation, and ribosome shunting. These “abnormal” expression strategies were first described for viral mRNAs and later usually also observed in rare cases of cellular gene expression.

Rogers and colleagues propose that BACE1 mRNA is translated by ribosome shunting. This mechanism involves the recruitment of ribosomes in a cap-dependent manner, and their subsequent nonlinear migration, in which part of the leader is skipped and ribosomes are directly translocated to a site at or close to the start codon of the major open reading frame. This mechanism was originally described for a plant virus (of the Caulimoviridae family), and later shown to be used by some animal viruses, including adenovirus. To my knowledge, BACE1 would be the first cellular mRNA to use the shunting mechanism for translation initiation.

The authors studied translation driven by the BACE1 leader both in an in-vitro translation system and in vivo upon transfection of different constructs in two rat-derived cell lines: B104 neuroblastoma cells and PC12, derived from a rat pheochromocytoma. The presence of the leader reduced expression of a reporter gene to 36 percent and 69 percent in B104 and PC12 cells, respectively, as compared to translation driven by the efficient β-globin leader. The fact that translation was inhibited by the presence of a strong stem-loop structure placed near the 5'-end both in vitro and in vivo, and by competition with a cap analogue, demonstrated that translation is cap-dependent. When the BACE1 leader was placed between two cistrons in a dicistronic mRNA, there was no expression of the second cistron, excluding the possibility that it functions as an internal ribosome entry site (IRES), allowing for internal initiation of translation.

The authors went on to test a series of mutants that included either deletions of portions of the leader or point mutations of the AUG codons to AUU (in different combinations). Surprisingly, deletion of parts of the leader containing the AUGs or mutations of the AUG codons did not have a major effect on the efficiency of translation. Only the mutation of the second AUG resulted in a modest increase in PC12, but not B104 cells. These AUG codons, however, are efficiently recognized as initiation codons when they are transplanted to a different mRNA. In the context of the full-length BACE1 leader, they do not seem to be available for translation initiation, and this points to a nonlinear migration of ribosomes. Moreover, PC12 and B104 responded differently to the different mutants, indicating a cell-type-specific effect. For instance, an element that inhibited translation was mapped to a region between nucleotides 61-74 in B104, but to nucleotides 180-190 in PC12 cells. The authors propose that cell-specific factors might modulate the efficiency of shunting mediated by the BACE1 leader.

Is there any evidence that translation of the BACE1 mRNA is regulated in vivo? If so, what are the implications for AD research? As the authors state, several studies have shown that BACE1 protein and activity are elevated in the brain of patients affected with AD, but this increase is not paralleled with an increase in mRNA levels. This would then indicate that BACE1 expression could indeed be modulated at the translational level by a mechanism that is altered in AD. Finding out exactly how this mechanism works and the factors implicated might reveal new therapeutic targets aimed at reducing BACE1 protein levels as an alternative to BACE1 enzyme inhibition.

View all comments by Diana Dominguez

Response to comment by Daniele Zacchetti
In a recent posting, Daniele Zacchetti and colleagues outlined substantial differences between the results reported in our paper and data from a paper that they have in press. Zacchetti suggests that the BACE1 transcript contains a cryptic promoter. This possibility was considered and addressed experimentally in our studies; however, our results could not be explained by cryptic promoter activity. In our transfection studies, the reporter constructs were transcribed via the strong CMV promoter and the translation efficiency of the reporter constructs containing the BACE1 5' leader was found to be up to approximately 70 percent of that of a reporter construct containing the 5' leader of the efficiently translated β-globin mRNA. In contrast, Zacchetti indicates that the BACE1 5' leader is inhibitory in their system, in which transcription occurs in the cytoplasm. If the high level of translation observed in our study was due to the production of shorter transcripts initiating at a cryptic promoter, they would have to be present at...  Read more

Response to comment by Daniele Zacchetti
In a recent posting, Daniele Zacchetti and colleagues outlined substantial differences between the results reported in our paper and data from a paper that they have in press. Zacchetti suggests that the BACE1 transcript contains a cryptic promoter. This possibility was considered and addressed experimentally in our studies; however, our results could not be explained by cryptic promoter activity. In our transfection studies, the reporter constructs were transcribed via the strong CMV promoter and the translation efficiency of the reporter constructs containing the BACE1 5' leader was found to be up to approximately 70 percent of that of a reporter construct containing the 5' leader of the efficiently translated β-globin mRNA. In contrast, Zacchetti indicates that the BACE1 5' leader is inhibitory in their system, in which transcription occurs in the cytoplasm. If the high level of translation observed in our study was due to the production of shorter transcripts initiating at a cryptic promoter, they would have to be present at approximately the same level as the CMV-driven transcript, and thus should be easily detectable. However, no shorter transcripts were detected by Northern blot analysis.

In addition, the introduction of a stable hairpin structure at the 5' end of the mRNA blocked translation by more than 98 percent, suggesting that the majority of the transcripts contained the full-length 5' leader. Comparable results were obtained in cell-free lysates using in-vitro transcribed RNA, corroborating the transfection results.

Although Zacchetti suggests that we did not consider the possibility of a splicing event, which might remove the upstream AUGs from the 5' leader, this possibility was addressed in our studies by performing PCR reactions using primers corresponding to the extreme 5' end of the BACE1 mRNA and to the 5' end of the coding region of the reporter cistron. The results of these studies revealed only one band corresponding to the full-length 5' leader, which indicated that there were no shorter mRNAs with alternatively spliced 5' leaders.

Zacchetti warns that the differences between the two studies might derive from differences between the rat and human sequences. We consider this possibility unlikely because of the strong similarity between these sequences, including the presence of four upstream AUGs and three upstream open reading frames in both sequences.

Without access to the Zacchetti manuscript, we cannot comment directly on their data; however, there may be several reasons for the differences between the two studies. One possibility is that the translation mechanism mediated by the BACE1 5' leader varies substantially in different cell types, and we reported evidence consistent with this notion. A second possibility may be related to the use of a cytoplasmic expression system by Zacchetti. In our manuscript, we suggested that the translation mediated by the BACE1 5' leader might be altered by RNA secondary structures that affect the rate of translation by altering the accessibility of the initiation codon. Furthermore, it is possible that the RNA secondary structures of the BACE1 reporter mRNA, and consequently, the rate of translation, may be different when this mRNA is transcribed in the cytoplasm rather than in the nucleus. Variations in the RNA secondary structure might arise because of differences between RNA binding proteins that are present and accessible to the mRNA in the nucleus and those that are present and accessible to the mRNA in the cytoplasm.

View all comments by Vincent Mauro

Over the last two years, several studies have suggested that levels of BACE1 protein are elevated in sporadic Alzheimer’s disease brains (1-4). It is not completely clear if the elevation of BACE1 protein is accompanied by an elevation in BACE1 message (as suggested in 4) or not (1-3). Obviously, based on postmortem studies, one cannot decide if the observed elevation in BACE1 protein is one of numerous biochemical abnormalities in advanced AD, or if it actually contributes to the pathogenesis. Because of the limited number of available studies, we do not know how robust this increase will turn out once a large number of cases are analyzed. With all these caveats in mind, it is nonetheless tempting to speculate that translational regulation of BACE1 could play a role in AD. Along these lines, several laboratories have initiated studies to investigate BACE1 mRNA translation.

Rogers et al. (5) have now performed a detailed study of the complex 5' leader of BACE1 mRNA and how it affects translation efficiency. Analysis of the leader sequence revealed the presence of three...  Read more

Over the last two years, several studies have suggested that levels of BACE1 protein are elevated in sporadic Alzheimer’s disease brains (1-4). It is not completely clear if the elevation of BACE1 protein is accompanied by an elevation in BACE1 message (as suggested in 4) or not (1-3). Obviously, based on postmortem studies, one cannot decide if the observed elevation in BACE1 protein is one of numerous biochemical abnormalities in advanced AD, or if it actually contributes to the pathogenesis. Because of the limited number of available studies, we do not know how robust this increase will turn out once a large number of cases are analyzed. With all these caveats in mind, it is nonetheless tempting to speculate that translational regulation of BACE1 could play a role in AD. Along these lines, several laboratories have initiated studies to investigate BACE1 mRNA translation.

Rogers et al. (5) have now performed a detailed study of the complex 5' leader of BACE1 mRNA and how it affects translation efficiency. Analysis of the leader sequence revealed the presence of three conserved upstream ORFs (uORFs) preceding the BACE1 initiation codon. Disruption of the uORFs had no effect on translation in B104 cells. Christian Haass and coworkers have obtained similar data in 293 cells (C. Haass, personal communication), but Rogers et al. (5) saw an impact on translation in PC12 cells. A detailed analysis suggests that translation occurs by an unusual mechanism that is not consistent with processive scanning of the 5' leader or with internal initiation of translation, but rather with ribosomes starting at the 5' end and then skipping over segments of the leader as they move to the initiation codon (5).

What does this have to do with AD? Translation properties of BACE1 mRNA could be altered in the disease, leading to increased BACE1 protein production. The different effects observed in different cell lines suggest the involvement of cell type-specific factors regulating BACE1 mRNA translation, which could account for a restriction of BACE1 protein increase to the brain. Clearly, regulation of BACE1 protein expression and its potential relationship to AD pathogenesis has emerged as an exciting topic for future studies.

References:
1. Holsinger RM, McLean CA, Beyreuther K, Masters CL, Evin G. Increased expression of the amyloid precursor beta-secretase in Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol. 2002 Jun;51(6):783-6. Abstract

2. Fukumoto H, Cheung BS, Hyman BT, Irizarry MC. Beta-secretase protein and activity are increased in the neocortex in Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol. 2002 Sep;59(9):1381-9. Abstract

3. Yang LB, Lindholm K, Yan R, Citron M, Xia W, Yang XL, Beach T, Sue L, Wong P, Price D, Li R, Shen Y. Elevated beta-secretase expression and enzymatic activity detected in sporadic Alzheimer disease. Nat Med. 2003 Jan;9(1):3-4. No abstract available. Abstract

4. Li R, Lindholm K, Yang LB, Yue X, Citron M, Yan R, Beach T, Sue L, Sabbagh M, Cai H, Wong P, Price D, Shen Y. Amyloid {beta} peptide load is correlated with increased {beta}-secretase activity in sporadic Alzheimer's disease patients. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 Mar 9;101(10):3632-3637. Epub 2004 Feb 20. Abstract

5. Rogers GW Jr, Edelman GM, Mauro VP. Differential utilization of upstream AUGs in the {beta}-secretase mRNA suggests that a shunting mechanism regulates translation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 Mar 2;101(9):2794-2799. Epub 2004 Feb 23. Abstract

View all comments by Martin Citron

As mentioned above in the comment posted by Martin Citron (March 18, 2004), we have a paper in EMBO Reports dealing with translational control of BACE1 expression (Lammich et al., 2004). Like Mauro et al. and De Pietri Tonelli et al., we also found that the 5'UTR (but not the 3'UTR) of BACE1 inhibits the translation of a downstream open reading frame in different cell lines. In contrast to the other two studies, we did not rely on luciferase as a reporter gene, but instead, we directly used the human BACE1 cDNA and analyzed BACE1 expression by Western blot and Northern blot analysis. An extensive mutagenesis analysis predicts that the GC-rich region of the 5'UTR forms a constitutive translation barrier, which may prevent the ribosome from efficiently translating the BACE1 mRNA.

View all comments by Stefan Lichtenthaler