Protein aggregation is a hallmark of many neurodegenerative diseases. In certain cases, including Parkinson’s disease, these aggregates include ubiquitin, a proteinaceous tag that earmarks proteins for degradation. Researchers from the National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland, report in Nature Genetics online that the identification of a mutation in mice that causes ataxia, or muscle paralysis. Interestingly, this mutation, an insertion of 5.2 kb of DNA, occurs in the gene for ubiquitin-specific protease 14 (Usp14).

First author Scott Wilson, working under the direction of Nancy Jenkins at NCI, together with co-workers at Northwestern University, Chicago, and the Novartis Foundation, San Diego, California, mapped the mutation, which arose spontaneously in laboratory mice, to a small section of chromosome 18. Close examination of the genes in that region showed that the insertion, which causes hind limb paralysis and early death, creates premature stop codons in Usp14 transcripts, resulting in a dramatic loss of expression.

The precise neurological role of Usp14 is unclear. At the cellular level homozygous mutant mice (axJ/axJ) show no detectable neurological lesions, ubiquitin-containing aggregates, or loss of neurons. However, the authors did find that synaptic transmission at the neuromuscular junctions of these animals was severely impaired; the spontaneous currents between the nerve and the muscle, or miniature end-plate currents, were lower in frequency and higher in amplitude than in normal mice. By measuring spontaneous end-plate currents, and those elicited by stimuli, Wilson et al. discovered that axJ/axJ mice had a 50 percent loss in transmission across the neuromuscular junction. The CNS also seems to be affected by this mutation as indicated by loss of paired-pulse facilitation (PPF), the heightened response of a nerve to a second stimulus closely following a first. PPF is a measure of synaptic plasticity, or the ability of neurons to make and break synapses, and loss of this type of facilitation correlates with learning impairment.

Overall the data indicates some role for Usp14 in synaptic function, a role that may equate to that played by the gene fat facets, recently found in Drosophila (see DiAntonio et al., Nature). However, the relationship between the protease and the ubiquitin-associated neurodegenerative diseases is hard to make, though the authors do suggest that Usp14 mutations may contribute to other disorders linked to altered synaptic function, namely major affect disorder 1 and schizophrenia disorder 8, both associated with genes that map near Usp14.—Tom Fagan

Comments

  1. The USP’s belong to the family of deubiquitinating enzymes (DUB’s) that are essential for subsequent proteasomal activity. The other family members are ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolases (UCH) that have been associated with Parkinson’s disease and gracile axonal dystrophy in the mouse. Ubiquitin is usually associated with proteasomal degradation but is also involved in a variety of other biological functions (e.g. cell cycle progression, signal transduction, antigen presentation and DNA repair). A new role is the assembly and function of neuronal circuits ( see review by Murphy and Godenschwege, 2002).The paper by Wilson et al is a highly interesting contribution in this regard as it shows in this mutant (ax/ax) that USP-14 is important for regulating synaptic activity (as indicated by a loss of paired-pulse frequency). The unknown target of USP-14 may be an interesting protein. It is possibly involved in neurodegenerative diseases where synapse maintenance is essential (Terry and Katzman, 2001).

    References:

    . New roles for ubiquitin in the assembly and function of neuronal circuits. Neuron. 2002 Sep 26;36(1):5-8. PubMed.

    . Life span and synapses: will there be a primary senile dementia?. Neurobiol Aging. 2001 May-Jun;22(3):347-8; discussion 353-4. PubMed.

  2. Ubiquitin and Synaptic Dysfunction: Ataxic Mice Highlight New Common Themes in Neurologic Disease
    The gene responsible for the neurologic symptoms in ataxia mice has been identified and shown to encode a ubiquitin-specific protease. This new study reveals new linkages among ubiquitination, synapse function, and neurologic disease.

    A final commonality in most neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is loss of neurons in critical brain areas. However, symptoms of illness often precede detectable neuronal loss, and many neurologic syndromes proceed without appreciable cell death or loss of nervous tissue. In such cases, the underlying deficit is believed to be in how the nerve cells themselves function and communicate at synapses. Indeed, aspects of cognitive impairment in both AD and age-related memory decline have been attributed to synaptic dysfunction.1-10 Yet, uncovering the links among disease genes or risk factors, synapse dysfunction, and pathologic features of neurologic disease remains a formidable challenge. Now, a recent paper in Nature Genetics from the laboratory of Nancy Jenkins reports that the neurologic phenotype of ataxia mutant mice is due to loss of a ubiquitin-specific protease which in turn produces profound synaptic dysfunction.11

    Jenkins and colleagues set their sights on identifying the genetic lesion responsible for the severe tremors and hindlimb paralysis in ataxia mutant mice, a recessive mutation that arose spontaneously and was first described almost 40 years ago.12 Through the laborious process of positional cloning, they mapped the mutation within mouse chromosome 18 to a location near Usp14, a gene which encodes ubiquitin-specific protease 14. Consistent with a loss-of-function mutation, expression of Usp14 mRNA was reduced and altered, and Usp14 protein was completely absent from ataxia mutant mice, due to a large insertion in the Usp14 gene. Interestingly, despite a predominantly neurological phenotype, Usp 14 is expressed in many tissues including brain, raising the possibility that these mice have additional, yet unapparent or subtle, defects in other tissues.

    So what exactly is Usp14? Usp14 exists as a member of a large family of enzymes dedicated to clipping off ubiquitin (Ub) from proteins to which this small 76 amino acid polypeptide has been attached.13 Covalent modification of proteins by Ub is important in controlling myriad cellular processes.14 Addition of Ub in growing chains (termed poly-Ub) serves as a targeting signal for marked proteins to be destroyed by the proteasome, a protein-eating machine which acts as the garbage disposal of cells. On the other hand, addition of a single Ub (termed mono-ubiquitination) regulates protein trafficking and protein activity,15 much like other post-translational protein modifications, including phosphorylation.

    Ub itself is attached to proteins through an isopeptide linkage involving the C-terminal carboxylate of Ub and the epsilon-NH2 group of a lysine side chain of the substrate protein.14 At least three distinct sets of enzymatic activities are involved in transferring Ub to proteins. These include the Ub-activating enzyme E1, Ub-conjugating enzymes (E2) and Ub ligases (E3). In addition, a large number of enzymes (including Usp14) control ubiquitin-dependent events by removing Ub.13,16 These deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) release Ub from proteins about to be degraded by the proteasome, recycle monomeric Ub from polymeric Ub chains, edit inappropriately ubiquitinated proteins, and reverse regulatory mono-ubiquitination.13,16 In the case of Usp14, this cleavage is specific for release of Ub from mono-ubiquitinated proteins in vitro.17

    How does loss of Usp14 lead to an ataxia neurologic phenotype? Although the molecular mechanisms are still unknown, Wilson et al. provide an important clue by showing that synaptic transmission is abnormal in the ataxia mutant mice.11 Such a "microscopic" deficit was suggested by the fact that ataxia mutant mice have only subtle anatomical changes in the central nervous system with no detectable pathological lesions of regions of cell loss.12,18 Specifically, Wilson et al. found marked alterations in synaptic transmission at both the neuromuscular junction—which makes good sense given the profound muscle wasting and motor deficits in these animals—and, interestingly, at CA3-CA1 synapses in the hippocampus, a brain region involved in learning and memory. The types of synaptic deficits observed, namely decreased quantal content at the neuromuscular junction and decreased paired-pulse facilitation (PPF) and post-tetanic potentiation (PTP) in CA1 hippocampus suggest that the deficit resides on the presynaptic side of the synapse in the machinery that regulates release of neurotransmitter. This finding is quite interesting in light of recent studies demonstrating crucial roles for presynaptic ubiquitination and deubiquitination in axon guidance and synapse development in insects and nonmammalian vertebrates.19 Together with these previous studies, the results of Wilson et al. highlight a largely unappreciated role for Ub-dependent protein modification in synapse function.

    Although the neurologic phenotype of ataxia mutant mice is not associated with significant neurodegeneration, the findings of Wilson et al. emphasize at least two new and emerging themes of relevance to neurodegenerative diseases, including AD. The first theme is the "sub-pathological" or microscopic dysfunction at the level of neuronal synapses. Just as Wilson et al. find subtle, yet physiologically significant synaptic defects in ataxia mutant mice, recent electrophysiological and behavioral studies support a role for synaptic dysfunction in the early stages of AD.2 For example, mutant mice overexpressing wild-type and mutant APP display disrupted synaptic morphology, altered hippocampal synaptic transmission or plasticity, and impairment of spatial learning, often before amyloid plaque deposition.3-7 In addition, exposure of hippocampal neurons to low concentrations of Aβ peptide fragments in brain slices or in vivo results in marked alterations in long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) of synaptic strength at CA1 synapses.1,20-22 More recently, examination of mice expressing presenilin-1 mutations linked to familial Alzheimer’s disease (FAD) has demonstrated abnormally sensitized hippocampal LTP.23,24 Such synaptic dysfunction is not only involved in clinical syndromes but also in "normal" age-related memory decline. In fact, altered hippocampal synaptic function provides one of the primary electrophysiological markers for memory deficits during aging.8-10

    A second important theme emerging from the studies of Wilson et al. and others19 is the important role of ubiquitin-dependent mechanisms in synaptic function. The accumulation of ubiquitin conjugates and inclusion bodies containing ubiquitin has long been acknowledged in the pathologic lesions associated with a broad array of chronic neurodegenerative diseases, such as the neurofibrillary tangles of AD, Lewy bodies in both Parkinson’s disease and Lewy body dementia, Bunina bodies in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and nuclear inclusions in CAG repeat expansion disorders such as Huntington’s disease, spinocerebellar ataxias, and spinobulbar muscular atrophy.14,25 More recently, mutations in ubiquitin-modifying enzymes and aberrant ubiquitin-proteasome function have been implicated in Parkinson’s, Huntington’s, and Alzheimer’s disease,25,26 as well as other neurologic syndromes.27,28 Intriguingly, many of the mutated ubiquitin-modifying enzymes (e.g., parkin in certain hereditary forms of Parkinson’s disease) or potential targets of ubiquitination are present at synapses and may impact synaptic function.29,30

    In the case of AD, a direct relationship between the ubiquitin system and disease pathogenesis has been strongly suggested by the discovery of a frameshift mutation in the ubiquitin which extends the molecule by 20 amino acids [Ub(+1)] in the brains of AD patients, including those with late-onset nonfamilial disease.31 Polyubiquitin chains formed from Ub(+1) are resistant to deubiquitination, and thus potently inhibit the degradation of polyubiquitinated proteins.32 Such inhibition could, in principle, lead to toxic buildup of ubiquitinated proteins, or perhaps alter ubiquitin-dependent modifications necessary for normal synaptic transmission, thereby producing both late and early aspects of disease symptoms, respectively. Additional distinct ubiquitin-dependent mechanisms in AD may occur via the presenilins (PS1 and PS2), proteins involved in processing amyloid precursor protein (APP) which are mutated in various familial versions of AD. Indeed, both PS1 and PS2 are targeted by the ubiquitin-proteasome system.33,34 Whether these ubiquitin-dependent mechanisms are in turn linked mechanistically to synaptic deficits or cell death associated with AD remains to be clarified, but the above discussed findings along with the new results from Wilson et al. further strengthen the link among aberrant ubiquitin-proteasome function, synaptic defects, and neurodegenerative disease.

    More study is clearly needed. In particular, very little knowledge exists regarding the ubiquitin-related enzymatic machinery at synapses or the synaptic proteins targeted by ubiquitination and deubiquitination. Paramount will be understanding the regulation of these important modifications during normal physiology and disease states. Also important will be deciphering the relationship between ubiquitin-dependent protein turnover and plastic or degenerative change at synapses. In this regard, uncovering the links among neurodegenerative disease genes, the ubiquitin-proteasome system, and synaptic signaling complexes promises to illuminate the mechanisms underlying synapse dysfunction in neurologic disease. By identifying a new role for ubiquitin-dependent mechanisms in the synaptic deficits of ataxic mice, Jenkins and colleagues have taken a steady step forward toward this goal.

    References:

    . Naturally secreted oligomers of amyloid beta protein potently inhibit hippocampal long-term potentiation in vivo. Nature. 2002 Apr 4;416(6880):535-9. PubMed.

    . Neuroplasticity failure in Alzheimer's disease: bridging the gap between plaques and tangles. Neuron. 1999 Nov;24(3):521-9. PubMed.

    . Impaired learning and LTP in mice expressing the carboxy terminus of the Alzheimer amyloid precursor protein. Nature. 1997 May 29;387(6632):500-5. PubMed.

    . Impaired synaptic plasticity and learning in aged amyloid precursor protein transgenic mice. Nat Neurosci. 1999 Mar;2(3):271-6. PubMed.

    . Plaque-independent disruption of neural circuits in Alzheimer's disease mouse models. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1999 Mar 16;96(6):3228-33. PubMed.

    . High-level neuronal expression of abeta 1-42 in wild-type human amyloid protein precursor transgenic mice: synaptotoxicity without plaque formation. J Neurosci. 2000 Jun 1;20(11):4050-8. PubMed.

    . Age-related impairment of synaptic transmission but normal long-term potentiation in transgenic mice that overexpress the human APP695SWE mutant form of amyloid precursor protein. J Neurosci. 2001 Jul 1;21(13):4691-8. PubMed.

    . Normal aging: regionally specific changes in hippocampal synaptic transmission. Trends Neurosci. 1994 Jan;17(1):13-8. PubMed.

    . Age-associated changes in Ca(2+)-dependent processes: relation to hippocampal synaptic plasticity. Hippocampus. 1997;7(6):602-12. PubMed.

    . Involvement of hippocampal synaptic plasticity in age-related memory decline. Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 1999 Nov;30(3):236-49. PubMed.

    . Synaptic defects in ataxia mice result from a mutation in Usp14, encoding a ubiquitin-specific protease. Nat Genet. 2002 Nov;32(3):420-5. PubMed.

    . Neuropathologic alterations in the ataxia (paralytic) mouse. Arch Pathol. 1965 Dec;80(6):604-12. PubMed.

    . Deubiquitinating enzymes: their diversity and emerging roles. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1999 Dec 29;266(3):633-40. PubMed.

    . The ubiquitin-proteasome proteolytic pathway: destruction for the sake of construction. Physiol Rev. 2002 Apr;82(2):373-428. PubMed.

    . Protein regulation by monoubiquitin. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2001 Mar;2(3):195-201. PubMed.

    . Regulation of ubiquitin-dependent processes by deubiquitinating enzymes. FASEB J. 1997 Dec;11(14):1245-56. PubMed.

    . Nonhydrolyzable diubiquitin analogues are inhibitors of ubiquitin conjugation and deconjugation. Biochemistry. 2000 Aug 15;39(32):10001-10. PubMed.

    . Morphologic abnormalities in the postnatal differentiation of CA1 pyramidal cells and granule cells in the hippocampal formation of the ataxic mouse. Anat Rec. 1980 Jan;196(1):61-9. PubMed.

    . New roles for ubiquitin in the assembly and function of neuronal circuits. Neuron. 2002 Sep 26;36(1):5-8. PubMed.

    . Blockade of long-term potentiation by beta-amyloid peptides in the CA1 region of the rat hippocampus in vivo. J Neurophysiol. 2001 Feb;85(2):708-13. PubMed.

    . Use-dependent effects of amyloidogenic fragments of (beta)-amyloid precursor protein on synaptic plasticity in rat hippocampus in vivo. J Neurosci. 2001 Feb 15;21(4):1327-33. PubMed.

    . Generation of aggregated beta-amyloid in the rat hippocampus impairs synaptic transmission and plasticity and causes memory deficits. J Neurosci. 2001 Aug 1;21(15):5703-14. PubMed.

    . Synaptic transmission and hippocampal long-term potentiation in transgenic mice expressing FAD-linked presenilin 1. Neurobiol Dis. 1999 Feb;6(1):56-62. PubMed.

    . Enhanced synaptic potentiation in transgenic mice expressing presenilin 1 familial Alzheimer's disease mutation is normalized with a benzodiazepine. Neurobiol Dis. 2000 Feb;7(1):54-63. PubMed.

    . Ubiquitin, cellular inclusions and their role in neurodegeneration. Trends Neurosci. 1998 Dec;21(12):516-20. PubMed.

    . Failure of the ubiquitin-proteasome system in Parkinson's disease. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2001 Aug;2(8):589-94. PubMed.

    . Mutation of the Angelman ubiquitin ligase in mice causes increased cytoplasmic p53 and deficits of contextual learning and long-term potentiation. Neuron. 1998 Oct;21(4):799-811. PubMed.

    . A role of the ubiquitin-proteasome system in neuropathic pain. J Neurosci. 2002 Feb 15;22(4):1363-72. PubMed.

    . Parkin and CASK/LIN-2 associate via a PDZ-mediated interaction and are co-localized in lipid rafts and postsynaptic densities in brain. J Biol Chem. 2002 Jan 4;277(1):486-91. PubMed.

    . Parkin functions as an E2-dependent ubiquitin- protein ligase and promotes the degradation of the synaptic vesicle-associated protein, CDCrel-1. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000 Nov 21;97(24):13354-9. PubMed.

    . Frameshift mutants of beta amyloid precursor protein and ubiquitin-B in Alzheimer's and Down patients. Science. 1998 Jan 9;279(5348):242-7. PubMed.

    . Inhibition of the ubiquitin-proteasome system in Alzheimer's disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000 Aug 29;97(18):9902-6. PubMed.

    . Endoproteolytic cleavage and proteasomal degradation of presenilin 2 in transfected cells. J Biol Chem. 1997 Apr 25;272(17):11006-10. PubMed.

    . Expression of Alzheimer's disease-associated presenilin-1 is controlled by proteolytic degradation and complex formation. J Biol Chem. 1998 Nov 27;273(48):32322-31. PubMed.

  3. Ubiquitin Is Implicated Not Only at the End of the Chain of Neuropathological Events
    Most investigators think that ubiquitin, as a heat shock protein, is involved in reaction to neuronal damage. The results by Wilson et al. (Nature Genetics 2002), several others (e.g., Hegde and DiAntonio, 2002) and the report by Ehlers, clearly have taught us that ubiquitin can also be implicated in early stages of neuronal dysfunctioning. If we extrapolate these data to Alzheimer’s disease, this could mean that the synaptic network does not function as efficiently as before (during mild cognitive impairments).

    Several years ago we published a paper on frameshift mutations (by dinucleotide deletions in simple repeats) in ubiquitin mRNA (Van Leeuwen et al., 1998). Remarkably, the resulting ubiquitin +1 (UBB+1) is present in the hallmarks of Alzheimer, suggesting an important role in neuropathogenesis.

    UBB+1, lacking its very C-terminal amino acid (glycine), which is essential for its biological activity, would in fact be a substrate for ubiquitination (Van Leeuwen et al., 2000; Lam et al., 2000; De Vrij et al., 2001). More recently we showed that UBB+1 inhibits the proteasome using a GFP reporter construct (Lindsten et al., 2002). In fact, UBB+1 is recognized as a ubiquitin fusion degradation substrate. Full blockade of the proteosome requires ubiquitination at Lys29 and Lys48. Furthermore, UBB+1 overexpression results in neuronal apoptosis (De Vrij et al., ibid.). As UBB+1 expression also occurs in non-neuronal cells, it might contribute to pathogenesis in other diseases, as well (McPhaul et al., 2002). These findings thus suggest that the inhibitory effect of UBB+1 may be an important determinant of neurotoxicity and contribute to an environment that favors the accumulation of misfolded proteins that occur in numerous neurodegenerative diseases.

    References:

    . Synaptic defects in ataxia mice result from a mutation in Usp14, encoding a ubiquitin-specific protease. Nat Genet. 2002 Nov;32(3):420-5. PubMed.

    . Ubiquitin and the synapse. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2002 Nov;3(11):854-61. PubMed.

    . Frameshift mutants of beta amyloid precursor protein and ubiquitin-B in Alzheimer's and Down patients. Science. 1998 Jan 9;279(5348):242-7. PubMed.

    . Molecular misreading: a new type of transcript mutation expressed during aging. Neurobiol Aging. 2000 Nov-Dec;21(6):879-91. PubMed.

    . Inhibition of the ubiquitin-proteasome system in Alzheimer's disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000 Aug 29;97(18):9902-6. PubMed.

    . Mutant ubiquitin expressed in Alzheimer's disease causes neuronal death. FASEB J. 2001 Dec;15(14):2680-8. PubMed.

    . Mutant ubiquitin found in neurodegenerative disorders is a ubiquitin fusion degradation substrate that blocks proteasomal degradation. J Cell Biol. 2002 Apr 29;157(3):417-27. PubMed.

    . Mutant ubiquitin expressed in Alzheimer's disease causes neuronal death. FASEB J. 2001 Dec;15(14):2680-8. PubMed.

    . Molecular misreading of the ubiquitin B gene and hepatic mallory body formation. Gastroenterology. 2002 Jun;122(7):1878-85. PubMed.

Make a Comment

To make a comment you must login or register.

References

External Citations

  1. DiAntonio et al.,

Further Reading

Papers

  1. . Essential role of E2-25K/Hip-2 in mediating amyloid-beta neurotoxicity. Mol Cell. 2003 Sep;12(3):553-63. PubMed.
  2. . Synaptic defects in ataxia mice result from a mutation in Usp14, encoding a ubiquitin-specific protease. Nat Genet. 2002 Nov;32(3):420-5. PubMed.

Primary Papers

  1. . Distinct serial position profiles and neuropsychological measures differentiate late life depression from normal aging and Alzheimer's disease. Psychiatry Res. 2003 Aug 30;120(1):71-84. PubMed.